Sophisticated transmitters and data loggers, which once were built by the biologists that used them, are available off the shelf from many commercial manufacturers. The ability to purchase a wide variety of electronic tags has allowed for a wider adoption of electronic tags across ecology, but has resulted in many biologists utilizing them with little understanding of how they function. The purpose of this review is to provide a reader-friendly description of the many sensors available to monitor the behavior, physiology, and environment of both terrestrial and aquatic animals. Our approach here is firstly to describe the electrical and mechanical principles behind each type of sensor and secondly to present one or two classic examples of how they have been used to provide insights into the biology of species from a diversity of taxa. Behavioral sensors that record the speed, acceleration, tilt angle, and direction of movement of an animal as well as its swimming depth or flight altitude will be described. Additional sensors are mentioned that detect feeding and spawning behavior as well as the proximity to conspecifics, prey, and predators. Physiological sensors will be described that monitor muscular, sensory, brain, gastric activity as well as body temperature, and sound production. Environmental sensors will be described that measure irradiance, dissolved oxygen, and magnetic field intensity. It is our hope that this review serves as springboard for biologists to develop innovative ways to learn more about their subjects using the myriad sensors that are available today, and the exciting new sensors to be developed in the future.
The diversity of sensors available to ecologists has grown extensively over the last several decades, from primitive thermistors included in the circuitry of the earliest radio and acoustic transmitters to complex multi-axial accelerometers [2] and magnetometers [3] with very high sampling rates. Although sensors are increasingly accessible, many biologists that utilize electronic tags do not have a functional understanding of their basic operating principles. We designed this review to provide biologists with a clear and concise understanding of the basic operating principles employed in any of the commonly used sensor technologies. We recommend that biologists, when using electronic transmitters and data loggers, obtain at least rudimentary understanding of how sensors work in order to have full confidence in the accuracy of the measurements they provide.
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Flying altitude is recorded using an altimeter which measures the vertical distance (parallel to the direction of the gravity force) in relation to a reference level, typically, sea or ground. The classical barometric altimeter contains an aneroid, which is a small, partially evacuated capsule with an elastic top attached to a pointer. As air pressure changes, the elastic portion of the aneroid will expand and contract and cause a corresponding change in the needle position. Modern aircraft have a knob that adjusts the device to a sea-level reference pressure and the change in pressure is indicated by the rotation of a needle in a small Kollsman window on a gauge, which is calibrated to provide altitude. A 1-mbar decrease in air pressure is equivalent to an 8.23 m increase in height above sea level [22]. The problem with this and other conventional altitude-measuring technologies is the difficulty in measuring ultra-low pressures, where there is a lack of resolution and accuracy in the absolute pressure sensing elements. Furthermore, the sensors take up considerable space, and for this reason, it is impractical to use them in miniature electronic tags.
Many physiological states can be determined from the analysis of blood samples. For example, male reproductive condition in sharks can be determined based on concentrations of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone [51]; female reproductive state can be determined from changing levels of estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone [52]. High stress is indicated by high levels of cortisol, catecholamines, and lactate as well as low levels of glucose. There is currently available a miniaturized blood sampler produced by Little Leonard of Tokyo, Japan [53]. It is designed for use with marine mammals. It consists of six modules, each consisting of a syringe that removes either blood from a vein or artery or interstitial fluids from the surrounding tissues and a sampler to store the fluids (Fig. 13a). The samplers are fastened to a plate with an electronic controller, and this plate is attached to the skin of a large marine mammal such as a seal or whale (Fig. 13b). The device can be programmed to draw blood with a syringe at specific intervals. Chemical sensors for glucose and lactate, which are on the market already, need only very small amounts of media for accurate measurements of concentrations. In many cases, it may be better to sample interstitial fluid from the tissue under the skin rather than blood from a capillary, as the interstitial fluid is less viscous than blood, which makes it easier to handle within the syringe, and it is not necessary to treat interstitial fluids with heparins, as is needed with blood to prevent coagulation during storage. The challenge to this technology is to reduce the size of this data logger so that it can be used with smaller bony fishes, sharks, and rays. However, there is a strong motivation to do so because there is keen interest among physiologists in monitoring the physiological responses of animals to their social and physical environments in their natural environment as has been done in the laboratory.
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